Лектор докладно проаналізувала разом з учасниками юридичну пунктуацію, а саме:

1. Вступ: Чому пунктуація має значення в юридичних текстах? Основні принципи та їхній вплив на тлумачення документів.

2. Кома, яка змінює сенс: Oxford Comma – чи варто використовувати? Судові справи, де кома вирішила долю контрактів.

3. Лапки: коли й навіщо? Цитування законів, угод і судових рішень. Одинарні vs. подвійні лапки.

4. Тире чи дефіс? Як уникнути плутанини у складних юридичних термінах. Приклади з правових документів.

5. Дужки: другорядна інформація чи пастка для читача? Як правильно вводити уточнення без ризику двозначності.

6. Знаки питання та оклику: місце емоцій у юридичних текстах. Коли їх використання виправдане, а коли – небезпечне?

7. Висновки: Найпоширеніші пунктуаційні помилки та способи їх уникнення.

У рамках характеристики юридичної пунктуації акцентовано на наступному:

1. Вступ: Чому пунктуація має значення в юридичних текстах? Основні принципи та їхній вплив на тлумачення документів

In the world of law, the answer is absolutely yes. Unlike literary writing, where style and creativity may dominate, legal drafting is aboutprecision, clarity, and enforceability. Every word, every letter — and indeed every punctuation mark — can determine how a document will be interpreted in court or in practice.

Modern legal drafters have begun to use punctuation in the same way that ordinary writers use punctuation – to give guidance about meaning.

Why is punctuation so crucial:

1. The Principle of Precision. Law defines obligations, rights, and boundaries. A misplaced comma can expand or limit a duty, or alter the scope of a provision.

2. The Principle of Clarity and Unambiguity. Lawyers, judges, and clients must understand the text in exactly the same way as the drafter intended. Punctuation functions as a set of “road signs” that guide the reader through complex legal structures and prevent ambiguity.

3. The Principle of Logical Structure. Punctuation reflects legal reasoning. It shows where one condition ends and another begins, where an exception is carved out, and where a general rule applies.

2. Кома, яка змінює сенс: Oxford Comma – чи варто використовувати? Судові справи, де кома вирішила долю контрактів

Commas are used to show a short pause within a sentence. They should be used with care as a misplaced comma can alter the intended meaning of the sentence.

At the same time, commas should be used where necessary to clarify meaning.

Simply omitting the commas often leads to ambiguity or an unintended meaning.

«Oксфордська кома» (Oxford comma), відома як «гарвардська» та «серійна» кома (Harvard comma, Serial comma або Series comma) ставиться перед сполучниками and, or чи nor, наприкінці речення перед останнім словом у списку перелічуваних однорідних членів речення.

Oxford comma необхідно вживати в юридичних текстах з метою уникнення двозначності та дотримання чіткості та ясного розуміння самого юридичного тексту. Наприклад, The plaintiff must establish duty, breach, causation, and damages.

• Без Oxford comma- The company’s website includes instructional manuals, links to other sites and items for sale. (Are the items for sale available on the company’s website or linked on the “other sites”?)

• З Oxford comma- The company’s website includes instructional manuals, links to other sites, and items for sale. (The items for sale are on the company’s website.)

Famous Cases Involving Punctuation:

• The $10 million comma dispute: In a 2017 case in the U.S., a missing Oxford comma in a labor law led to a multimillion-dollar lawsuit about overtime pay for truck drivers.

• RogersCommunicationsv.Bell Aliant (2006) This case focused on a comma in a contract clause that stated: "This agreement shall remain in force for five years, and thereafter from year to year unless terminated by either party upononeyear’snotice.“ Rogers Communications believed the contract guaranteed a minimum five-year term. However, Bell Aliant argued that the comma after "five years" allowed them to terminate the agreement at any time with one year’s notice, even before the five years ended. The Canadian telecommunications regulator sided with Bell Aliant, resulting in millions in losses for Rogers. This case highlighted the importance of carefully reviewing punctuation in contracts to avoid unintended interpretations.
  
  

3. Лапки: коли й навіщо? Цитування законів, угод і судових рішень. Одинарні vs. подвійні лапки

In British English, single quotation marks (‘ ’) should be used for a first quotation. For example: He wrote, ‘that is the most important question’.

Double quotation marks should be used for any quotation within a quotation. For example: He wrote, ‘she said “that is the most important question”’.

When and why do we use quotation marks in legal texts:

1. Citing Legislation and Statutory Provisions:

• When we reproduce a specific phrase or wording from an Act of Parliament, a Code, or a Regulation, quotation marks show that the language is verbatim.

• Example: The statute provides that “no action shall be brought after six years.”

• Here, the quotation marks signal that the phrase is taken directly from the statute, not paraphrased.

2. Quoting Contractual Clauses:

• In agreements, quotation marks can be used to highlight the exact contractual language under discussion.

• Example: The clause states that “the Buyer shall pay within thirty (30) days of delivery.”

• This ensures that there is no confusion between the parties’ original wording and the lawyer’s commentary.

3. Citing Case Law and Judicial Decisions:

• Courts often quote earlier judgments, and legal practitioners must reproduce that wording faithfully.

• Example: As Lord Denning observed, “Freedom of contract does not mean freedom to ignore the law.”

• Again, the quotation marks protect the integrity of the cited text.
  
  

Quotation marks:

• Single quotation marks should be used again for any quotation inside a quotation inside a quotation. For example: He wrote, ‘she said “that is the most important question he asked during his ‘manor house’ speech”’.

• The closing quotation mark should come before all punctuation marks unless these form part of the quotation itself. For example: Did the judge really say, ‘that lawyer is a fool’? but: The judge asked, ‘is that lawyer a fool?’

Single vs. Double Quotation Marks:

1. British English (including legal drafting in England & Wales): Double quotation marks (“…”) are generally used for direct quotations. If a quotation appears inside another quotation, single marks (‘…’) are used. Example: The judge noted, “The witness said, ‘I did not see the contract signed.’”

2. American English: The convention is the opposite: double quotation marks for the main quote, single marks for a quotation within a quotation.

Practical Note for Lawyers:

Always check your jurisdiction’s style guides or court practice directions. For instance, The Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities (OSCOLA) in the UK uses single quotation marks for quotations, while U.S. legal writing (Bluebook) prefers double.

4. Тире чи дефіс? Як уникнути плутанини у складних юридичних термінах. Приклади з правових документів

Dashes can be used in two circumstances:

1. They can be used to enclose a sub- clause in a sentence. For example: Very few– in fact almost none– of the lawyers working in this city have additional expertise in accountancy.

2. This can be a handy way to clarify sentences which mightotherwisebefilled with confusing commas. Along dash canbeusedasasubstitute for the word to. For example: The proposed route is Helsinki— London—NewYork—Helsinki

En Dash (–) and Em Dash (—):

• En-Dashes: An en-dash is used to express a range of numbers, times, or dates, such as 1–5 or January–June, and can be read as “through” or “to.”

• Em-Dashes: An em-dash, the longer of the dashes, is used in more casual situations than en dashes, such as when you interrupt your own train of thought. It’s also used for emphasis.

Hyphens are used in two circumstances:

1. They are used, particularly in British English, to join together two words in respect of which the first word is a prefix of the second. For example, pre-trial, non-statutory. These words are usually run together in American English: pretrial, non statutory.

2. Hyphens are also used to make phrasal adjectives, which are adjectives made up of more than one word. For example, health-care provider or real estate purchase.

Function:The hyphen is used to join words and create compound terms.

Legal Relevance: In legal drafting, the presence or absence of a hyphen can change interpretation.

Key point:Hyphens remove ambiguity by showing that words belong together as a single legal concept.

Hyphen for compound adjectives: “The company shall appoint a non-executive director.”

Examples:

• Non-executive director(a director who is not executive) vs. nonexecutive director(sometimes interpreted more loosely).

• Co-ownervs. co owner(the first is correct; the second could be read as “company owner”).

• Pre-trial hearingvs. pretrial hearing (both used, but the hyphen clarifies structure).

5. Дужки: другорядна інформація чи пастка для читача? Як правильно вводити уточнення без ризику двозначності

Parentheses ( ):

• These are used to enclose words, phrases or whole sentences. If a whole sentence is in parentheses, the end punctuation stays inside it. For example: (Stanning plc is hereinafter referred to as ‘the Company’).

• Where only the end part of the sentence is in parentheses, the end punctuation goes outside the parentheses. For example: Stanningplc (hereinafter referred to as ‘the Company’).

The main circumstances in which parentheses are used are as follows:

1. To enclose remarks made by the writer of the text himself or herself. For example, ‘Mr. X (as I shall call him) then stood up to speak’.

2. In the report of a speech, to enclose interruptions by the audience.

3. To enclose reference letters or figures. For example, ‘(1) (a)’.

4. To enclose mention of an authority, definition, explanation, reference or translation.

Avoid parentheses within parentheses – use commas or dashes instead. Dashes are a useful way of separating concepts within sentences.

Practical Tip for Lawyers:

• Parentheses should never carry the “core obligation” of a clause.

• If the information is essential, integrate it into the main text.

• Use parentheses only for supporting, secondary details that aid understanding without affecting enforceability.

Square brackets [ ]:

• Square brackets enclose comments, corrections, explanations or notes not in the original text, but added at a later stage by new authors or editors.

• Square brackets are used in legal writing to adjust the format of quoted material.

• For example, they may be used to indicate that a letter now in lowercase was in capitals in the original text (‘The court ruled that [e]xistence of the subject matter of the contract precluded a finding of force majeure.’).

6. Знаки питання та оклику: місце емоцій у юридичних текстах. Коли їх використання виправдане, а коли – небезпечне?

The circumstances in which question marks are used are as follows:

1. To follow every question that requires a direct answer. For example, ‘what does that mean?’. However, note that a question mark is not required after indirect questions. For example, ‘he asked mewhatthatmeant’.

2. A question mark may also be placed before a word or phrase the accuracy of which is doubted. For example, ‘Joe (?) Zanuderghosh’.

Where they may appear legitimately:

• In interrogatoriesor requests for information in litigation.

• In witness statementsor transcripts, when capturing the exact wordingof a spoken question.

• In academic or training contexts, but not in binding legal documents.

Why risky in contracts/statutes:

Legal texts must stateobligations, not askthem. A question form introduces uncertainty or rhetorical tone, which undermines enforceability.

Example: Incorrect -The seller shall deliver the goods (?) on or before 1 June. Correct -The seller shall deliver the goods on or before 1 June.

Exclamation mark (!):

• The exclamation mark is used after an exclamatory word, phrase or sentence.

• It usually forms the concluding full stop but need not do so.

• It may also be used within square brackets after quoted text to indicate the writer’s feelings of, for example, amusement, surprise or disagreement. For example, ‘The court then heard the defendant mutter, “this judge is a fool”’ [!].

Rarely appropriate in legal writing.Their primary function is to show emotion —surprise, urgency, indignation —which is incompatible with legal neutrality.

Why dangerous:

• Creates an impression of bias or subjectivity.

• May undermine the seriousness of the text if used in contracts, statutes, or pleadings.

Where acceptable: In informal correspondence, negotiation emails, or marketing materials for law firms —but not in binding legal instruments.

Example: Correct -The buyer must pay immediately! Incorrect -The buyer must pay immediately.

The Underlying Principle:

1. Law relies on certainty, neutrality, and enforceability.

2. Punctuation should never convey emotion; it should convey logic and structure.

3. Question and exclamation marks, if used inappropriately, introduce rhetorical tone — which courts may disregard or interpret unfavorably.

Practical Tip for Lawyers:

1. Use question marksonly in discovery tools or quoted testimony.

2. Avoid exclamation marksaltogether in formal legal drafting.

3. If emphasis is needed, restructure the sentence or use formatting (headings, definitions) rather than emotional punctuation.

7. Висновки: Найпоширеніші пунктуаційні помилки та способи їх уникнення

The Most Common Punctuation Mistakes in Legal Writing —and How to Avoid Them:

1. Misplaced or Missing Commas.

Problem: Expanding or narrowing obligations unintentionally.

Example: The parties, who signed the agreement, shall… (suggests all parties signed) vs. The parties who signed the agreement shall… (suggests only some parties signed).

Solution: Use commas consistently to separate clauses only where legally appropriate.

2. Confusing Hyphens and Dashes.

Problem: Hyphens omitted or misused in compound terms; dashes used inconsistently.

Example: nonexecutive director vs. non executive director.

Solution: Use the hyphen to join words into one legal concept; use dashes for ranges or emphasis, not as a substitute.

3. Inconsistent Use of Quotation Marks.

Problem: Switching between single and double quotation marks, or failing to follow jurisdictional rules.

Solution: Follow the recognized citation style (e.g., OSCOLA in the UK, Bluebook in the US). Be consistent throughout the document.

4. Using Emotional Punctuation (?! or !).

Problem: Introducing tone or rhetorical style into a text that must remain neutral.

Solution: Avoid exclamation marks entirely in contracts and statutes; limit question marks to discovery tools or quoted testimony.